The term civilization is often used to describe a particular type of human community. People who live in cities, have a complex division of labor, and regularly trade with other communities are considered to be civilized. But what exactly is a civilization? Scholars have debated the question for ages. Most large historians now accept that a unified civilization is characterized by a set of features.
The basic requirements for civilization are food surpluses, higher population densities, social stratification, and systems of taxation. Civilizations also tend to develop more sophisticated art forms, a wide range of scientific understanding and technological advances, and organized religion.
Early civilizations usually grew out of hunter-gatherer communities that settled into semi-permanent and then permanent towns. With a stable base of food production, these communities could support a more diverse group of economic activities. In addition to farming, people produced crafts and other goods that could be traded with other communities. Traders would need to keep track of their business agreements, leading to the development of writing and standardized measurement.
Civilizations also developed more elaborate social structures, including class systems. These systems ranked people by the amount and kind of work they did. People who did more important or valuable work, such as religious leaders or politicians, became a elite group called the ruling class. People who did less important or valuable work became lower classes. This system of social hierarchy helped stabilize the agrarian economy.
These changes, in turn, led to the growth of towns and then cities. In the ancient world, city-states were considered to be the highest form of civilization. These were governed by leaders with special authority to control local irrigation systems and the food supply. They were populated by farmers, priests, artisans, and other specialists who had specialized skills.
As the city-states grew, they began to expand their territory. As they did so, a more centralized form of government developed. This was often a religious organization that claimed to represent or even be the divine kings of the city-states. In these societies, politics and religion worked together closely.
Other characteristics of civilization include a system of centralized planning, a developed transportation network, a standardized unit of measure (such as the cube), a system of currency, contractual and tort-based legal systems, and advances in metallurgy, architecture, art, music, and literature. While historians do not agree on a precise list of characteristics, most scholars now recognize that the cities of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China, and South America are all examples of civilization. The Inca Empire in Peru, which thrived from the fourteenth through sixteenth centuries CE, is another example.