Civilization, a cornerstone of human development, encapsulates the intricate tapestry of societal progress and cultural achievements. In addition to the development of advanced urban areas, civilizations typically exhibit a number of other cultural traits, including organized religion and complex division of labor. Whether they’re considered primitive, prehistoric or ancient, all civilizations have something in common: the ability to grow food and build structures to house it.
The evolution of humans from semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers to civilizations marks one of the most important milestones in our planet’s history. In a short time, the emergence of a few early civilizations gave rise to agriculture and writing, two essential tools that allowed them to produce more food than they could consume. In turn, these newfound food sources enabled people to live in permanent communities and develop a wide range of other cultural advancements.
While historians debate how to define civilization, the term generally refers to an advanced society that has a number of characteristics including: a division of labor, central government planning, a system of recording, an understanding of astronomy, the use of metal tools and weapons, an organized religion and a culture that values education and achievement. The development of civilizations brought with it a higher standard of living, but also problems like warfare, environmental degradation and economic disparity. Today, scientists are adopting a holistic approach to studying civilizations in order to gain insights that can be applied to current global issues.
Early human fossils and archeological remains provide the best clues about what defines a civilization. By examining the shape, size and markings on bones, scientists can learn about the lives of our ancestors. For example, a dig in modern-day Turkey revealed that the earliest humans used bone tools and had a relatively high level of physical fitness, as evidenced by the large muscles that helped them move heavy objects.
Historian Arnold J. Toynbee developed the concept of civilization by analyzing the rise and fall of societies that he considered to be advanced. He theorized that civilizations decline because of moral or religious corruption and the failure of a group of leaders to meet a key challenge.
Modern-day scholars of civilizations often make the distinction between cultures by evaluating their urban sophistication, agricultural capabilities and other cultural advances. They’ll also take into account a society’s ability to maintain long-distance trade and its rudimentary form of government.
Civilizations usually develop around the development of large population centers, or cities. These are typically surrounded by farmland and the homes of rural residents who sell their goods to city dwellers. Some of the world’s oldest urban centers include Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece and Rome.